Updated Jun 4, 2026

Exception Handling

Exceptions provide a mechanism to transfer control from a point where an error occurs to a handler that can deal with it. They separate error-handling code from normal logic, making code cleaner and more maintainable.

Basic Syntax

Throwing Exceptions

#include <stdexcept>
#include <string>

double divide(double a, double b) {
    if (b == 0.0) {
        throw std::invalid_argument("Division by zero");
    }
    return a / b;
}

void processFile(const std::string& filename) {
    if (filename.empty()) {
        throw std::runtime_error("Empty filename");
    }
    // Process file...
}

Catching Exceptions

#include <iostream>
#include <exception>

void exampleUsage() {
    try {
        double result = divide(10.0, 0.0);
        std::cout << "Result: " << result << '\n';
    }
    catch (const std::invalid_argument& e) {
        std::cerr << "Invalid argument: " << e.what() << '\n';
    }
    catch (const std::exception& e) {
        std::cerr << "Error: " << e.what() << '\n';
    }
    catch (...) {
        std::cerr << "Unknown error occurred\n";
    }
}

info

Catch handlers are checked in order. Always catch more specific exceptions before general ones.

Exception Flow

Standard Exception Hierarchy

Common Standard Exceptions

Exception	Use Case	Example
`std::invalid_argument`	Invalid function argument	Negative size
`std::out_of_range`	Index out of bounds	`vec.at(100)`
`std::runtime_error`	Runtime condition	File not found
`std::logic_error`	Programming logic error	Precondition violated
`std::bad_alloc`	Memory allocation failed	`new` failed
`std::bad_cast`	Dynamic cast failed	Invalid `dynamic_cast`

#include <stdexcept>
#include <vector>

void standardExceptions() {
    std::vector<int> vec = {1, 2, 3};
    
    try {
        // Throws std::out_of_range
        int value = vec.at(10);
    }
    catch (const std::out_of_range& e) {
        std::cerr << "Out of range: " << e.what() << '\n';
    }
    
    try {
        // Throws std::bad_alloc if allocation fails
        int* huge = new int[1000000000000];
    }
    catch (const std::bad_alloc& e) {
        std::cerr << "Allocation failed: " << e.what() << '\n';
    }
}

Custom Exceptions

Simple Custom Exception

#include <exception>
#include <string>

class FileError : public std::runtime_error {
    std::string filename_;
    
public:
    FileError(const std::string& msg, const std::string& filename)
        : std::runtime_error(msg), filename_(filename) {}
    
    const std::string& filename() const { return filename_; }
};

void useCustomException() {
    try {
        throw FileError("Cannot open file", "config.txt");
    }
    catch (const FileError& e) {
        std::cerr << "File error: " << e.what() 
                  << " (file: " << e.filename() << ")\n";
    }
}

Exception with Additional Context

#include <exception>
#include <string>

class DatabaseError : public std::runtime_error {
    int error_code_;
    std::string query_;
    
public:
    DatabaseError(const std::string& msg, int code, const std::string& query)
        : std::runtime_error(msg), error_code_(code), query_(query) {}
    
    int errorCode() const { return error_code_; }
    const std::string& query() const { return query_; }
};

void databaseOperation() {
    try {
        // Database operation fails
        throw DatabaseError("Query failed", 1064, "SELECT * FROM users");
    }
    catch (const DatabaseError& e) {
        std::cerr << "DB Error " << e.errorCode() << ": " << e.what() << '\n'
                  << "Query: " << e.query() << '\n';
    }
}

Custom Exception Hierarchy

Derive custom exceptions from standard exception classes to maintain compatibility with generic handlers.

Stack Unwinding

When an exception is thrown, the stack is unwound - local objects are destroyed in reverse order of construction:

#include <iostream>

class Resource {
    std::string name_;
    
public:
    Resource(const std::string& name) : name_(name) {
        std::cout << "Acquiring " << name_ << '\n';
    }
    
    ~Resource() {
        std::cout << "Releasing " << name_ << '\n';
    }
};

void demonstrateUnwinding() {
    try {
        Resource r1("Resource 1");
        Resource r2("Resource 2");
        
        throw std::runtime_error("Error!");
        
        Resource r3("Resource 3");  // Never constructed
    }
    catch (const std::exception& e) {
        std::cout << "Caught: " << e.what() << '\n';
    }
    // Output:
    // Acquiring Resource 1
    // Acquiring Resource 2
    // Releasing Resource 2
    // Releasing Resource 1
    // Caught: Error!
}

warning

Stack unwinding calls destructors but does not execute code after the throw point in the current scope.

RAII and Exception Safety

RAII (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization) ensures resources are properly released during stack unwinding:

#include <fstream>
#include <memory>
#include <mutex>

void exceptionSafeFunction() {
    // File automatically closed on exception
    std::ifstream file("data.txt");
    
    // Memory automatically freed on exception
    auto ptr = std::make_unique<int[]>(100);
    
    // Mutex automatically unlocked on exception
    std::mutex mtx;
    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(mtx);
    
    // If exception thrown here, all resources cleaned up
    if (someCondition()) {
        throw std::runtime_error("Error");
    }
    
    // Resources released automatically at scope exit
}

Manual Resource Management (Unsafe)

void unsafeFunction() {
    int* data = new int[100];
    FILE* file = fopen("data.txt", "r");
    
    // If exception thrown here, memory leaked!
    processData(data, file);
    
    delete[] data;      // May not execute
    fclose(file);       // May not execute
}

RAII Resource Management (Safe)

#include <memory>
#include <fstream>

void safeFunction() {
    auto data = std::make_unique<int[]>(100);
    std::ifstream file("data.txt");
    
    // Exception safe - resources automatically cleaned up
    processData(data.get(), file);
    
    // Automatic cleanup
}

RAII Wrappers

Always use RAII wrappers (smart pointers, file streams, lock guards) for exception-safe resource management.

Exception Specifications

noexcept Specifier

Mark functions that don't throw exceptions:

// Guarantees no exceptions
void safeFunction() noexcept {
    // If exception thrown, std::terminate called
}

// Conditionally noexcept
template<typename T>
void swap(T& a, T& b) noexcept(std::is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T>) {
    T temp = std::move(a);
    a = std::move(b);
    b = std::move(temp);
}

See noexcept and Strong Guarantee for details.

Rethrowing Exceptions

#include <exception>

void processWithLogging() {
    try {
        riskyOperation();
    }
    catch (const std::exception& e) {
        logError(e.what());
        throw;  // Rethrow the same exception
    }
}

void convertException() {
    try {
        lowLevelOperation();
    }
    catch (const LowLevelError& e) {
        // Throw different exception
        throw HighLevelError("High-level operation failed", e.what());
    }
}

info

Use throw; without an argument to rethrow the original exception object, preserving its type and state.

Nested Exceptions (C++11)

#include <exception>
#include <stdexcept>

void nestedExceptionExample() {
    try {
        try {
            throw std::runtime_error("Low-level error");
        }
        catch (...) {
            std::throw_with_nested(std::runtime_error("High-level error"));
        }
    }
    catch (const std::exception& e) {
        std::cerr << e.what() << '\n';
        
        try {
            std::rethrow_if_nested(e);
        }
        catch (const std::exception& nested) {
            std::cerr << "  Caused by: " << nested.what() << '\n';
        }
    }
}

Exception safety guarantees

How much a function promises about program state when an exception escapes — basic, strong, or no-throw — is a subject of its own. The four levels, the copy-and-swap commit pattern, and the rollback technique are covered on the Exception Safety page. The one-line version: do the throwing work on a copy, then commit with a noexcept move or swap.

void strong(std::vector<int>& vec, int value) {
    std::vector<int> temp = vec;   // work on a copy (may throw)
    temp.push_back(value);
    vec = std::move(temp);         // commit — noexcept, so this can't fail
}

Performance Considerations

#include <chrono>

// Exception path (zero-cost until thrown)
double divideException(double a, double b) {
    if (b == 0.0) {
        throw std::invalid_argument("Division by zero");
    }
    return a / b;
}

// Return code path (always check)
bool divideReturnCode(double a, double b, double& result) {
    if (b == 0.0) {
        return false;
    }
    result = a / b;
    return true;
}

info

Zero-cost exceptions: No overhead on the happy path (when no exception is thrown). Overhead only when exception is actually thrown.

Destructors and Exceptions

danger

NEVER throw exceptions from destructors! If a destructor throws during stack unwinding, std::terminate is called.

class BadExample {
public:
    ~BadExample() {
        // WRONG: May throw during unwinding
        throw std::runtime_error("Error in destructor");
    }
};

class GoodExample {
public:
    ~GoodExample() noexcept {
        try {
            cleanup();  // May throw
        }
        catch (...) {
            // Log error, but don't rethrow
            logError("Cleanup failed");
        }
    }
};

Exception-Neutral Code

Code that doesn't handle exceptions but allows them to propagate:

template<typename T>
void processContainer(std::vector<T>& vec) {
    for (auto& item : vec) {
        item.process();  // May throw - let it propagate
    }
    // Exception-neutral: doesn't catch, but maintains invariants
}

Practical Examples

Example 1: File Processing

#include <fstream>
#include <string>
#include <stdexcept>

class FileProcessor {
public:
    void process(const std::string& filename) {
        std::ifstream file(filename);
        if (!file) {
            throw std::runtime_error("Cannot open file: " + filename);
        }
        
        std::string line;
        int lineNum = 0;
        
        while (std::getline(file, line)) {
            ++lineNum;
            try {
                processLine(line);
            }
            catch (const std::exception& e) {
                throw std::runtime_error(
                    "Error at line " + std::to_string(lineNum) + 
                    ": " + e.what()
                );
            }
        }
    }
    
private:
    void processLine(const std::string& line);
};

Example 2: Transaction Pattern

#include <vector>

class Transaction {
    std::vector<std::function<void()>> rollback_actions_;
    bool committed_ = false;
    
public:
    template<typename Action, typename Rollback>
    void execute(Action action, Rollback rollback) {
        action();
        rollback_actions_.push_back(rollback);
    }
    
    void commit() {
        committed_ = true;
        rollback_actions_.clear();
    }
    
    ~Transaction() {
        if (!committed_) {
            // Rollback in reverse order
            for (auto it = rollback_actions_.rbegin(); 
                 it != rollback_actions_.rend(); ++it) {
                try {
                    (*it)();
                }
                catch (...) {
                    // Log but continue rollback
                }
            }
        }
    }
};

void useTransaction() {
    Transaction txn;
    
    txn.execute(
        []{ createFile("temp.txt"); },
        []{ deleteFile("temp.txt"); }
    );
    
    txn.execute(
        []{ allocateResource(); },
        []{ freeResource(); }
    );
    
    txn.commit();  // Success - no rollback
}

Example 3: Exception Guard

template<typename Func>
class ExceptionGuard {
    Func func_;
    bool dismissed_ = false;
    
public:
    explicit ExceptionGuard(Func f) : func_(std::move(f)) {}
    
    ~ExceptionGuard() {
        if (!dismissed_) {
            try {
                func_();
            }
            catch (...) {
                // Suppress exception in destructor
            }
        }
    }
    
    void dismiss() { dismissed_ = true; }
};

void useGuard() {
    std::vector<int> vec;
    
    ExceptionGuard guard([&]{ vec.clear(); });
    
    vec.push_back(1);
    vec.push_back(2);
    
    if (success) {
        guard.dismiss();  // Keep changes
    }
    // Otherwise, guard will clear vec on destruction
}

When to Use Exceptions

Use Exceptions When:

Errors are exceptional (not expected in normal flow)
Error handling code would clutter normal logic
Errors need to propagate through multiple layers
You need strong exception safety guarantees
Constructors fail (can't return error codes)

warning

Avoid Exceptions When:

Performance is critical and errors are frequent
Writing real-time or embedded systems
Interacting with C libraries
Destructors or cleanup code
noexcept functions

Best Practices

DO:

Throw by value, catch by const reference
Use standard exception types when possible
Provide meaningful error messages
Maintain exception safety guarantees
Document which exceptions functions may throw
Use RAII for all resource management

danger

DON'T:

Throw exceptions from destructors
Catch exceptions by value (causes slicing)
Use exceptions for control flow
Throw pointers to exception objects
Ignore exceptions with empty catch blocks
Mix exception handling with resource management

noexcept and Strong Guarantee - Exception specifications
Error Codes - Alternative error handling
Assertions - Debug-time checks

Basic Syntax​

Throwing Exceptions​

Catching Exceptions​

Exception Flow​

Standard Exception Hierarchy​

Common Standard Exceptions​

Custom Exceptions​

Simple Custom Exception​

Exception with Additional Context​

Stack Unwinding​

RAII and Exception Safety​

Manual Resource Management (Unsafe)​

RAII Resource Management (Safe)​

Exception Specifications​

noexcept Specifier​

Rethrowing Exceptions​

Nested Exceptions (C++11)​

Exception safety guarantees​

Performance Considerations​

Destructors and Exceptions​

Exception-Neutral Code​

Practical Examples​

Example 1: File Processing​

Example 2: Transaction Pattern​

Example 3: Exception Guard​

When to Use Exceptions​

Best Practices​

Related Topics​

Basic Syntax

Throwing Exceptions

Catching Exceptions

Exception Flow

Standard Exception Hierarchy

Common Standard Exceptions

Custom Exceptions

Simple Custom Exception

Exception with Additional Context

Stack Unwinding

RAII and Exception Safety

Manual Resource Management (Unsafe)

RAII Resource Management (Safe)

Exception Specifications

noexcept Specifier

Rethrowing Exceptions

Nested Exceptions (C++11)

Exception safety guarantees

Performance Considerations

Destructors and Exceptions

Exception-Neutral Code

Practical Examples

Example 1: File Processing

Example 2: Transaction Pattern

Example 3: Exception Guard

When to Use Exceptions

Best Practices

Related Topics